The European Union (EU) has long recognised the pivotal role of education and training in fostering economic growth, social cohesion, and individual development. Over the decades, the EU has implemented various initiatives to strengthen its education and training systems, culminating in the development of a distinctive European model, characterised by a commitment to lifelong learning, quality assurance, and international mobility. It brings together a diverse range of educational pathways – from vocational education and training (VET) to higher education (HE) – and aims to provide individuals with the skills and knowledge needed to succeed in a rapidly changing global economy. However, the European model is not static; it is constantly evolving in response to societal, economic, and technological shifts.

Our paper is part of the international project “Partnering Up Europe: Transnational strategic partnerships in the European model of education and training (ParEdu)” and studies the relationship between the European model of education and training and two recent major policy initiatives by the EU: the Erasmus+ Centres for Vocational Excellence initiative (CoVE) and the European Universities initiative (EUI). The CoVE initiative, established in 2018, focuses on enhancing VET by establishing networks of VET providers that collaborate with HE institutions, public authorities, employers, and other stakeholders across borders (primarily in Europe) to promote innovation, quality, and inclusivity in VET and to develop transnational skills ecosystems (Authors, forthcoming). The EUI, initiated in 2017, fosters transnational cooperation in HE by creating alliances among universities, working together with various academic and non-academic stakeholders across Europe (Authors, 2023; Authors, 2024).

These transnational strategic partnerships (TSPs) represent a novel approach to collaboration that seek to foster deeper integration and innovation across national borders. By examining these TSPs we seek to unravel the underlying policy rationale, institutional characteristics, and their impact on the evolving European model of education and training. For this purpose, we rely on institutional and organisational theory (e.g., Scott 2014; Powell et al. 2012) as well European policy research (e.g. Authors, 2022; Authors, 2023; Authors, 2023).

This paper focuses on findings from the organisational level part of our analysis, uncovering the institutional and organisational characteristics as well as operational dynamics of these partnerships. Specifically, we offer novel findings in relation to three overarching research themes: first, we explore what the composition and characteristics of the member organisations involved in the CoVE and the EUI are. Second, we show how the governance structures and decision-making processes of CoVEs and EUI compare at the organisational level and discuss what implications these differences could have for the effectiveness of these partnerships. Finally, we identify what the distinct operational models employed by CoVEs and EUI are, and how these models facilitate or challenge the integration and goals of the partnerships. By examining these aspects, our paper provides novel insights into the internal dynamics and external relationships of TSPs, revealing how they function and adapt within the evolving European education model.

Methods

Our study as presented in this paper employs mixed-method approach, combining quantitative and qualitative data sources at the organisational level, specifically comparing the operational models and stakeholder dynamics of 118 TSPs, 53 CoVEs and 65 EUI alliances. Key organisational documents, such as mission statements and strategic plans for TSPs, are analysed following grounded theory approach, alongside a descriptive analysis of statistical data available through public sources (e.g., ETER, Eurostat) to understand the composition and characteristics of these partnerships. Additionally, interviews with TSP coordinators and other relevant stakeholders are conducted and analysed thematically to gain insights into the governance structures and decision-making processes of these partnerships.

In Switzerland, the dual vocational education and training (VET) system relies on the commitment of companies that host and finance apprentices. This investment is based on two objectives: on the one hand, improving productivity by using apprentices as a low-cost workforce or, on the other, investing in the development of a pool of qualified workers for future recruitment. The Health Care Assistant (HCA) program, established in 2004 to address labor shortages in the healthcare sector, illustrates an investment strategy where returns depend on retaining apprentices post-training. However, only 26% of graduates continue in this profession for five years after completing their training (Trede et al., 2017).

This study explores the process of organizational socialization of HCA apprentices and its impact on their retention in training companies. It explores three key questions: (1) What are the psychosocial processes through which HCA apprentices develop a sense of belonging, organizational commitment, and loyalty to the training company? (2) How can the resources and environment in the training company help to retain apprentices? (3) Are there variations between healthcare segments?

To answer these questions, two theoretical frameworks will be mobilized, quality factors of dual education theories and organizational socialization theories. Based on the work on the quality criteria of a dual vocational training system (Berger et al., 2020; Böhn and Deutscher 2019, 2021; Sauli et al., 2021), we will refer mainly to the theories of organizational socialization (Chao et al., 2012; Delobbe and de Boer, 2023) which provide a framework to identify factors influencing the retention of HCAs in their training organizations. In contrast to other forms of socialization (e.g., into the profession or workplace—see Duc et al., 2020), organizational socialization has been underexplored in the context of dual VET.

A mixed-methods approach (Creswell and Clark, 2018), combining an exploratory qualitative study with a deductive quantitative survey is applied. Regarding the qualitative phase, case studies were conducted in training companies across three sectors (hospitals, long-term care, and home care) and three contrasting cantons. So far, three case studies have been completed in three hospitals, including 9 interviews, 14 days of observation, and documentary analyses. Data were analyzed using Atlas.Ti, and four additional case studies are planned for the beginning of 2025.

Based on the results of these case studies, a quantitative phase is planned in the form of a longitudinal questionnaire survey of around 600 HCA apprentices spread across all vocational education and training (VET) schools in the French-speaking cantons. These apprentices will be asked to complete two questionnaires, one during their final year of training (Spring 2025) and the other three months after graduation (Fall 2025). In order to analyze the data collected in the questionnaires, hierarchical regression analyses and mediation-moderation models (Hayes, 2013) as well as latent profile analyses (Morin et al., 2018) will be carried out using SPSS and Mplus statistical software.

The results of this study will provide useful recommendations to help training companies in the healthcare to identify the levers for a better return on investment of apprenticeship, to promote a global approach to the company learning environment among training designers and managers, and to broaden the spectrum of indicators taken into account by public authorities and researchers when monitoring the quality of the Swiss Vocational Training System.

This paper examines training alliances ("Lehrbetriebsverbünde") in Switzerland, focusing on an organisational model that has received relatively little attention in the international literature (Bahl & Ebbinghaus, 2019; Lachmayr, 2009), despite the fact that cooperation between different types of training providers has been a key topic in vocational education research for some time (Culpepper, 2000; Hiim, 2023). The contribution demonstrates how such alliances foster new forms of alternation in basic vocational education and training (VET) and thus adds to the international discussion on alternation in both VET and professional education and training (PET). The presentation is based on a review of documents tracing the development of such alliances in the German-speaking part of Switzerland since the late 1990s, as well as on case studies of 17 training alliances, which were analysed using qualitative interviews.

At first glance, training alliances may not seem particularly relevant to the discussion on alternation in VET/PET, as they primarily concern the organisation of the workplace-based component of training. In fact, they were developed in Switzerland—partly inspired by similar initiatives in Germany—primarily with the aim of encouraging new companies to engage in vocational training (Gertsch, 1999; DBK, 2002a, 2002b). Until then, many companies had refrained from offering apprenticeships, either because legal regulations prevented them from doing so or because they perceived such engagement as unprofitable or administratively burdensome. Through training alliances, apprentices were now given the opportunity to complete their training within a rotation model across different host companies, with the aim of exposing them to the full breadth of their profession.

As this paper demonstrates, however, training alliances did not remain confined to this organisational model. Instead, their establishment also led to the creation of—mostly privately run—training centres, where partner companies could outsource the foundational practical training of apprentices. Similar to fully school-based VET, these centres deliver structured and formalised practical training, often integrating elements that are otherwise covered in intercompany courses (the so-called "third learning venue"). In technical occupations, such training centres have frequently emerged from the in-company training centres of large firms, which, through the establishment of training alliances, became accessible to a broader range of training companies. This model has also been adopted in the IT sector, where such centres now fulfil a function that, at the national level, was initially intended to be taken on by vocational schools.

Furthermore, the paper highlights that some training alliances assume educational responsibilities traditionally associated with vocational schools. A small number of alliances, particularly in the pharmaceutical industry, even provide the school-based part of vocational education themselves. In addition, there are training alliances—typically supported by public funding—with strong socio-political objectives, specifically targeting socially disadvantaged apprentices by offering them additional support and guidance throughout their training.

While this contribution highlights the potential of training alliances, it also aims to address the challenges associated with this model. Overall, it is evident that training alliances have not become as widespread as initially hoped by policymakers. One possible explanation—though requiring further examination—is that companies in Switzerland have little incentive to join such alliances, given the relatively low level of regulation in the apprenticeship market.

With regard to both Swiss policy debates and the academic literature, another key insight is that regular company rotations within alliances are rare. This is primarily because such rotations are often unattractive to companies. When rotations do occur, they rarely aim to broaden apprentices' training experience, in contrast to practices observed in sectors such as agriculture, where rotation is an established training principle.

This paper explores the methodological approach of combining actor-centered institutionalism (ACI; Mayntz & Scharpf 1995) with Toulmin's model of argumentation (Toulmin 2003) to analyze the inception phase of national qualifications frameworks (NQFs). Using Ethiopia and Austria as case studies, the research highlights how this approach can reveal the complexities of educational policy-making, including the negotiation processes, actor dynamics, and underlying justifications shaping NQF development.

NQFs are policy tools aimed at structuring and comparing qualifications across levels and sectors (Young 2003; Tuck 2007). While they have been widely adopted since the 1990s, evidence of their success is limited, and they are often criticized for reflecting neoliberal ideologies that prioritize competency-based models and international comparability over local contexts (Allais 2010, 2019; Chakroun 2010). To investigate these dynamics, the study employs ACI to analyze how actors navigate institutional constraints and opportunities while pursuing their interests. ACI focuses on the coordination of actions and the interplay between collective actors, providing insights into the broader institutional context of policy-making.

Toulmin’s model of argumentation complements this by enabling a structured analysis of the arguments presented in policy documents and interviews. The model identifies six elements of argumentation—claim, data, warrant, backing, qualifier, and rebuttal (Toulmin 2003)—allowing for a systematic examination of both explicit and implicit arguments. This dual methodological approach enables to uncover the plurality of perspectives and tensions underlying the apparent consensus on NQF implementation.

The research draws on a corpus of policy documents and interviews from Ethiopia and Austria, enriched with meta-information (e.g., author, sector, date). To manage the large dataset, a large language model (LLM) was employed as an assistive tool for text analysis. Toulmin’s model was applied across this corpus to identify patterns in argumentation and to evaluate the completeness of argument structures. The analysis also revealed notable tensions, such as the potential impact of NQFs on higher education autonomy and the challenges of integrating non-formal learning.

The study underscores the value of combining ACI and Toulmin’s model to bridge macro- and micro-level perspectives in policy analysis. ACI provides insights into the institutional and actor-driven context of policy-making, while Toulmin’s model enables a granular examination of argumentative structures. This approach highlights how different actors prioritize and frame their arguments based on their roles and interests, offering a deeper understanding of the dynamics that shape policy processes.

The research concludes that NQFs can serve as tools for both reform and consensus-building, but their development is often marked by competing interests and institutional constraints. For instance, while Austrian actors highlighted the benefits of international alignment, they also raised concerns about maintaining higher education autonomy. Ethiopian stakeholders, in contrast, viewed the NQF as a means to harmonize fragmented structures and support national development goals. These findings suggest that the success of NQFs depends not only on technical design but also on the ability to mediate diverse stakeholder interests and address context-specific challenges.

This methodological and analytical approach contributes to the theoretical debate on educational governance and provides practical insights for designing more inclusive and effective policy processes.