The 1970s in Switzerland were years of great change, driven by the post World War II economic boom, by rapid technological advances and by profound societal transformations. Also the Swiss education system went through a period of major transformation, the so-called “educational expansion” (Bildungsexpansion) period, characterised by a kind of “reform euphoria” and by a general increase in participation in different forms of education and, more specifically, a gradual and massive increase in the participation of young Swiss people in upper secondary education, both general and vocational (Criblez 2001, Gonon 2018).

The education system was under particular pressure during these years (Bonoli & Vorpe, 2022). Three challenges needed to be met: Firstly, changes in the world of work, with major technological innovations, required ever more advanced qualifications. Secondly, there was a growing ‘social demand for education’ (Venturelli, 1985) among the general population, who aspired to improve their level of education. Finally, we also faced a new challenge: that of equality of opportunity in education, with an ever stronger demand to ensure conditions of equal access and treatment for all young Swiss people, not only for compulsory education but also for upper secondary education.

These three challenges determine the general development of the Swiss education system from the 1970s up to now, characterised by an increase in the importance of general education, an improvement in the conditions of apprenticeships and the introduction of measures to improve equality of access to upper secondary education (Bonoli & Gonon, 2023). However, while a general trend can be identified, the cantons responded to these three challenges in different ways (Bonoli & Vorpe, 2022).

By closely analysing the legislative framework of five Swiss cantons (Ticino, Vaud, Fribourg, Basel Stadt, Thurgau) between 1960 and 1980, our presentation aims to highlight the different cantonal responses to the three challenges mentioned above. Particular emphasis will be placed on the reforms adopted in the cantons to open up access to upper secondary programmes (in particular to general upper secondary education) and thus improve freedom of choice after compulsory school. Attention will also be placed on the subsidies or grants made available to reduce the financial barriers that could limit educational options, and finally on the measures adopted to improve apprenticeship training conditions and bring them into line with those of students at general education schools.

This analysis will reconstruct the situation of the education system in the five cantons, both on the basis of official documents (laws, regulations, government papers, commission reports, parliamentary debates) and on the basis of available statistical data (Swiss yearbooks of statistics, federal censuses, cantonal yearbooks, departmental reports).

This analysis will enable us to show major differences: on the one hand, cantons that open up access to post obligatory general education schools and grant a great deal of financial aid, and on the other, cantons where few measures are adopted in the years under consideration, with the result of drastically limiting the freedom of choice of young people, who are forced to choose apprenticeship training in the absence of possible alternatives.

About 20 years ago, Switzerland introduced a two-year Federal Certificate of vocational education and training (VET), complementing the regular three- and four-year programmes (Federal VET Diploma). VET certificates aim at integrating academically low-achieving but practically talented young people into the labour market and/or allowing them to continue their education by earning a VET diploma (Schwaab, 2019). 6% of all upper secondary degrees in 2023 were federal certificates (Swiss Federal Statistical Office, 2024) . Although around three fourths of all VET certificate holders are integrated in the labour market within 6-8 months after the apprenticeship (Fitzli et al., 2016; Hofmann et al., 2020), they search longer for a job, are unemployed more often and change jobs involuntarily more frequently than diploma holders (Fitzli et al., 2016). However, little is known about employers’ perception of and willingness to hire certificate holders. Therefore, we ask: How do employers rate VET certificate holders’ chances to be invited to a job interview compared to VET diploma holders? How can differences in hiring chances between certificate and diploma holders be explained?

Several theoretical strands explain employers’ preferences for educational degrees. First, human capital theory argues that the applicant with the most productive skills at the lowest cost is hired (Becker, 1964). Education and training can inform employers about applicants’ skills (e.g. occupation-specific skills) as well as hiring costs (wages, expected duration of the on-the-job-training and expected tenure of the job applicants). Second, signalling theory argues that education and training credentials serve as signals of unobservable cognitive skills (present before the start of the education and training) which influence on-the-job productivity (e.g. motivation, ability to learn) (Arrow, 1973; Stiglitz, 1975). Third, culturalist theories emphasize that hiring decisions are based on employers’ perception of applicants’ fit with the team and customers (Rivera, 2012). Educational credentials may serve as indicators of the cultural capital and social skills expected to fit in (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977).

We use data from a series of factorial surveys with in total 2105 Swiss employers, i.e. persons (co-) responsible for filling a real vacancy. We limit our sample to 31 occupational fields, in which both the VET certificate and VET diploma are established (N=1037). The vacancies were drawn from all vacancies for permanent positions in these fields published online in Summer 2024. Each employer evaluated eight vignettes describing hypothetical profiles of job applicants with regards to the likelihood to invite the applicant for a job interview (main dependent variable) and applicants expected productivity, team and customer-fit, wage expectations, and tenure (mechanisms). The profiles were randomly varied in four dimensions: highest education (e.g. federal certificate; federal diploma; main independent variable); work experience; gender and grades. For the analysis we run separate OLS regressions for each occupational field including fixed effects for the employers.

The results show that federal certificate holders are significantly less likely to be invited to a job interview than federal diploma holders in 22 of the 31 occupational fields. A sizeable part of the difference can be explained by employers’ perception of VET certificate holders as less productive and to fit less well with the team and customers than federal diploma holders. Only wage expectations work in favour of VET certificate holders, because employers assume that this group of job applicants expects lower pay. Overall, our results show that culturalist theories and theories focusing on job applicants’ productivity (human capital and signalling) can jointly explain part of the differences in hiring chances between diploma and certificate holders. The unexplained part of VET certificate holders’ lower employment chances indicate that additional mechanisms are at work, which need investigating with future research.

Introduction

Vocational Education and Training (VET) prepares students for the labor market by combining theoretical instruction with practical training in companies. The dual VET model ensures that students develop industry-specific competencies while gaining real-world work experience (Deissinger & Gonon, 2021). Norway follows a 2+2 model, where students spend two years in school before entering a two-year apprenticeship. However, many students struggle to secure an apprenticeship, preventing them from completing their training (Høst & Smedsrud, 2022).

In response, the Completion Reform (Meld. St. 21, 2020–2021) introduced a “third year in school” for students unable to obtain an apprenticeship. Despite being an alternative pathway, participation remains low, raising concerns about its effectiveness and accessibility.

Theory

In VET, organizational theory can be seen as closely related to equity in education, emphasizing the interaction between different actants in the network around the students (Czarniawska, 2014). In Norway, equity in VET is closely linked to institutional collaboration between schools, apprenticeship agencies, and employers. The role of local networks and institutions is essential in bridging educational gaps, where VET equity is not just about equal opportunities but ensuring meaningful access to education and employment (Author, 2023). Low participation and completion in third year at school suggests that further adjustments are needed to improve equity in vocational training.

Method

This study employs a mixed-methods approach to examine pathways from school-based training to completed apprenticeships. The quantitative component analyzes regional data on students transitioning from the first two years at school, to a vocational certification. It tracks completion rates, dropout trends, and regional disparities in apprenticeship placements.

The qualitative approach consists of a case study in health care education at “third year at school”. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 13 participants, including leaders, teachers, apprentices, and supervisors. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, while thematic analysis identified patterns in institutional strategies supporting students.

Results

Findings reveal significant variations in student demographics, completion rates, and the structure of “third year in school”. The majority of students were adult women, often immigrants, seeking to complete their training and enter the health care sector. This group achieved higher completion rates compared to many other groups.

The studied case followed a highly structured model, where teachers closely supervised students and demanded full-time engagement. The program was task-oriented, ensuring that every assignment contributed to the final exam, with trial exams reinforcing exam preparedness.

A key success factor was the strong collaboration with health care institutions, where workplace supervisors played an active role in guiding students toward exam-relevant tasks. This ensured that students received practical, work-relevant training despite the absence of a traditional apprenticeship. Additionally, the majority of students in the program were adult women who were highly motivated to complete their education and secure employment in the health care sector. Many of them had prior work experience and viewed the program as an opportunity to formalize their qualifications and improve their job possibilities.

Conclusion

Findings emphasize the importance of organizational structure, instructional strategies, and work-based collaboration in making “third year at school” a viable alternative to apprenticeships. However, unequal participation and completion rates raise concerns about educational equity. The study highlights the need for further structural adjustments to ensure that students, regardless of background, receive high-quality vocational training.

The evolving landscape of vocational education and training is shaped by rapid technological progress and the changing demands of the labor market. Meeting these challenges requires adaptable, evidence-based approaches to reform. Reform labs, such as those conducted by the Center on the Economics and Management of Education and Training Systems (CEMETS), play a crucial role in promoting knowledge exchange between policymakers, practitioners and researchers. However, assessing their long-term impact remains a challenge. This study assesses the lasting impact of CEMETS programs using a structured research contribution framework to analyze the different levels of engagement and their corresponding effects on policy, practice and systemic change.

Building on Caves and Lueling’s (2021) application of the Research Contribution Framework (RCF) to knowledge sharing, this study uses the three phases of the RCF: research uptake (activities, outcomes and engagement), research use (awareness and capacity for change) and research impact (behavior change and end results). The adaptability of the RCF to different contexts, methods and theories of change makes it a versatile tool for evaluating the long-term impact of knowledge sharing interventions.

Using the RCF (Morton, 2015), this study categorizes CEMETS alumni participation into three models of engagement: (1) one-time participation, (2) repeated participation, and (3) repeated participation combined with applied research. Each model represents a different level of engagement and is assessed against five key dimensions: engagement and knowledge exchange, knowledge enhancement, capacity building, impact on policy and practice, and societal/economic impact. A mixed methods approach will be used, including annual follow-up surveys, the CEMETS Alumni Impact Survey (LimeSurvey) and qualitative case studies based on in-depth interviews.

The theoretical framework integrates established models for impact analysis in education and research. Caves and Lueling (2021) did not find a significant impact of repeated participation alone, they recognized the qualitative value of ongoing knowledge sharing. We build on this perspective by suggesting that repeat participation, when combined with context-specific applied research, leads to greater long-term impact by ensuring that research findings are directly actionable. This cyclical process encourages deeper engagement and more sustainable application of knowledge. By introducing the element of ongoing participation, our study extends the RCF and provides new insights into optimizing knowledge-sharing initiatives for long-term effectiveness and systemic change.

While bibliometric and case-based approaches (Bornmann & Marx, 2013) provide insights into academic productivity, they often fail to capture broader socio-economic and systemic impacts. The Payback Framework (Wooding et al., 2007) links research findings to tangible societal benefits and serves as the basis for our assessment of leadership development, policy implementation, and institutional reform among CEMETS alumni. In addition, the Social Impact Assessment Methods for Policy and Institutional Change (SIAMPI) framework (Spaapen & Drooge, 2011) emphasizes the role of productive stakeholder interactions in promoting sustainable impact and serves as an important lens for interpreting survey and interview data.

Future research should explore additional theoretical perspectives to refine our understanding of the long-term impact of VET reforms. Frameworks such as the Knowledge Exchange Framework (Kitagawa & Lightowler, 2013) and the Research Impact Pathways Model (Donovan, 2011) could provide further insights into the mechanisms that drive policy adoption and practice change. In addition, the inclusion of network analysis could help to capture the diffusion of reform ideas among alumni and their professional networks.

This study contributes to the growing discourse on measuring the real-world impact of research-based policies. By applying a rigorous evaluation framework to CEMETS alumni engagement, we enhance our understanding of how reform labs can catalyze lasting change in TVET systems worldwide.