In 2022, the number of unfilled vacancies was higher than the number of those still looking for a training position for the first time in Germany (Christ et al. 2022). In 2023, the supply also exceeded the demand from young people (Oeynhausen et al. 2023). In Germany, young people's training aspirations are concentrated in relatively few occupations. One consequence of the increased focus on a small number of occupations is that, on the one hand, it is becoming increasingly difficult to fill training places in seemingly less popular occupations. On the other hand, the competition for jobs in supposedly more attractive occupations also means that many young people are unsuccessful in their search for a training place.

In recent years, research into young people's career choices has increasingly focussed on the need for social recognition. In this context, the narrowing and compromise theory (Gottfredson 1981, 2005) is a widely recognised theory of career choice. Studies show that young people not only consider pragmatic factors such as earning potential or professional interests when choosing an occupation, but often also the possible reactions of their social environment ( et al. 2015, Oeynhausen & Ulrich 2020, Oeynhausen 2022 )

This article analyses factors influencing young people's career choices. The starting point is the desired occupation of young people who have finished school. What role does the social environment (parents and friends) and institutions such as school play in young people's desired occupation? And what role does social media play in young people's career choices? Can gender- and origin-specific differences be identified here?

The studies are based on empirical data from the BA*/BIBB*/IAB** Applicant Survey from 2024, which is a representative, extrapolated written postal sample study of young people who were registered with the Federal Employment Agency's careers counselling service as training place applicants. The BA/BIBB/IAB applicant survey provides important information on the career orientation, career choice and training integration of young people in Germany who are interested in training and who are registered with the Federal Employment Agency as applicants for in-company vocational training.

*BA: Bundesagentur für Arbeit/ Federal Employment Agency

**BIBB: Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung/ Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training

***IAB: Institut für Arbeit und Beschäftigung/ Institute for Employment Research

Occupational choice is an issue of outstanding importance for a fulfilling individual as well as for a functioning social life. The latter applies all the more against the backdrop of an increasing shortage of skilled workers, which in Germany particularly affects the middle qualification segment and thus the vocational education and training (VET) sector (Wolter 2022). One factor that influences occupational choice is the social recognition that certain professions receive. Studies show that young people tend to exclude occupations as potential career options if they are associated with the expectation of low social approval (Eberhard et al. 2015; Matthes 2019).

Occupations differ in the social recognition they receive, usually referred to as occupational prestige. Conceptually, a distinction is often made between a symbolic (e.g. reputation) and a material (most notably remuneration) dimension of occupational prestige (Honneth 2008, Stache et al. 2024). In this contribution, we focus on a social value dimension by looking at the perceived approval from the immediate social environment, which additionally accentuates the significance of individual involvement and perception for prestige assessments.

The perceived social recognition of an occupation and the orientation towards significant others is emphasised in various theoretical approaches as a relevant factor in occupational choice. On the one hand, it can be interpreted as an aspect of occupational image, i.e. as a "generalisation a person makes about a particular occupation" (Gottfredson 1981, 547). It can therefore be understood as part of an occupational choice process based on the fit of people to professions (Holland 1973). Orientation towards significant others is also embedded in rational choice approaches, where ‘social costs’ are included in the assessment of the benefits and costs of career options (Jonsson 1999). The social value of an occupation can also be considered in the context of social norms and their relationship to identity (Akerlof and Kranton 2000). Corresponding findings suggest that the social environment acts as a "sounding board that provides young people with information about the social coherence of their career choice" (Granato and Ulrich 2020, 168) and helps to shape their career aspirations (Matthes 2019).

So far, it remains unclear to what extent occupations differ in terms of their social recognition and how these differences can be explained. Using the example of 29 dual VET occupations we therefore examine (1) how vocational occupations differ in terms of the approval that young people expect from parents and friends, and (2) how individual (e.g. gender, migration background and socioeconomic background) and occupational characteristics (e.g. job profile, gender composition, qualification level) are related to these differences. In doing so, we build on recent research on factors influencing occupational prestige perceptions (e.g. Abrassart/Wolter 2020; Lynn/Ellerbach, 2017; Valentino, 2020) and contribute to the understanding of occupational choice processes by focusing on young people.

The analyses are based on survey data collected at German secondary schools as part of a regional career orientation study in the years 2021-2023 (BIBB 2024). Approximately 2,000 pupils each rated two dual VET occupations in terms of expected approval from family and friends. The rated occupations represent a selection of different commercial, industrial/technical and craft professions. We use the individual and occupational characteristics described above as predictors to model their hypothesised effects on young people's ratings of expected approval from parents and friends in order to examine the extent to which they can explain variance in the expected social approval of occupations. Data on individual characteristics was also collected in the survey. Data on occupational characteristics is obtained from official sources (e.g. the employment statistics of the Federal Employment Agency) and linked to the survey data.

Reflection is a fundamental component of career planning, enabling adolescents to evaluate their beliefs, experiences, and aspirations critically. This is in line with concepts asking people to design their careers (Savickas et al., 2009). We see that reflection is embedded in many career orientation programmes. However, it is essential to distinguish between reflection, which aims to find a follow-up solution in the transition from school to work, and reflection, which touches on beliefs to broaden or change the perspective on a career eventually. Reflection thus helps, on the one hand, solve short-term challenges in transition situations (Guichard, 2022). As important as it is to master the transition from school to work smoothly, it is even more important to know why one has made a specific decision. Only then can career exploration and decision processes add to evaluating one’s beliefs. Grounded in the transformative learning theory (Mezirow, 2009), self-reflection is central to entering a transformative learning and developmental process. Within this framework, one can assess gender stereotypes, cultural norms influencing career planning, and parental expectations directed at children. This is vital, as career decisions made at a young age, not only in Switzerland, are often influenced by gender or cultural factors. Self-reflection and insight are essential competencies for fostering lifelong career management skills, equipping students to navigate the complexities of contemporary career trajectories. In light of the increasing unpredictability of labour markets, promoting reflective capacity in career education is crucial for enhancing students’ adaptability and informed decision-making.

We present findings from a four-year longitudinal intervention study (2021–2025) delivered online. The study engaged 1,748 students from grades 9 to 11 in structured reflective tasks. The intervention was designed to stimulate personalised self-reflection, addressing students’ interests, emotions, and career aspirations. The study employed linear mixed-effects models to examine the relationships between task-induced reflection, task completion, and metacognitive outcomes while accounting for individual- and class-level variance.

As hypothesised, task-induced reflection was positively associated with critical thinking, self-reflection, and insight, thereby reinforcing the role of structured individual reflection in career planning. Baseline measures strongly predicted follow-up outcomes, indicating that initial dispositions towards reflection are crucial in shaping long-term metacognitive development. Contrary to expectations, the number of completed tasks negatively correlated with critical thinking. Exploratory analyses suggested that this relationship was moderated by motivation levels: Highly motivated students in career planning benefited from engaging in additional tasks, demonstrating an increase in reflective capacity. Less motivated students encountered diminishing returns, indicating that excessive engagement in structured tasks without intrinsic motivation may hinder deeper critical engagement. Random intercept models revealed substantial variance within students but minimal variance at the class level, underscoring the highly individualised nature of career reflection and the importance of tailoring interventions to address student-specific needs.

Reflection-inducing tasks enhance critical thinking, self-reflection, and insight, particularly when students engage in task-induced reflection and have intrinsic motivation for career exploration. These findings emphasise the necessity of integrating reflective practices into career education while recognising the individual nature of career planning. By embedding metacognitive skill development within a structured and supportive framework, educators can play a pivotal role in enhancing students’ adaptability, decision-making, and lifelong career resilience in an evolving workforce.