Dual-track Vocational Education & Training (dual VET) presents different advantages for the school-to-work transition (STWT) of young people: By combining experiential and academic learning, it ensures the acquisition of job-relevant skills and thus facilitates a swift integration in the job market, while setting way for the longer-term continued education and career development towards decent work (Cedefop, 2016; Masdonati et al., 2021). This seems particularly the case in Switzerland, a country holding one of the highest proportions of Dual VET amongst upper secondary education tracks in Europe (Kriesi et al., 2022), while presenting very low rates of youth unemployment and youth remote from education and training (ILO, 2020). Despite studies documenting the positive effects of dual VET for most, two questions remain understudied. First, in scientific literature, it is unclear if VET is as adaptable for and accessible to specific marginalized groups facing socioeconomic constraints and structural barriers. Second, whereas the strong dual VET tradition in Switzerland draws on a strong economy and a stable labor market, its transferability to less developed socioeconomic contexts, which have mainly informal apprenticeship (ILO, 2011) should be investigated, over and above systemic analyses based on stakeholders’ recommendations (Toepper et al., 2021). Responding to a call for studies gathering contextualized data by focusing on the experiences and perceptions of all actors involved, this study focuses on a project (Skills for Youth In Mozambique, SIM!) run by a Swiss NGO (HELVETAS) in northern Mozambique and funded by the Swiss Government. By implementing dual VET in a remote and rural area with very low youth access to education and high rates of precarious and informal employment (ILO, 2022), the SIM! Program aims at supporting the STWT and the career development of marginalized youth through vocational training, basic education, career guidance, and coaching. Following a qualitative approach to understand the challenges experienced by youth enrolled in the program and the perceptions and strategies of practitioners implementing it, the data was collected through seven semi-structured interviews with beneficiaries and two focus groups with 29 trainers. Based on Reflexive Thematic Analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006, 2019) of data, preliminary results point to beneficiaries and trainers having shared perceptions of the main challenges of the STWT, stemming from lack of socioeconomic resources that lead to restricted access to educational and vocational opportunities. In line with the main goals of the program, beneficiaries report its positive impacts through enhanced vocational and entrepreneurial skills and increased self-efficacy. Accordingly, trainers’ main strategies aimed at proximal (i.e. development of vocational and entrepreneurial skills) and distal (i.e. long-term career planning) goals to buffer the impact of socioeconomic constraints and labor market restrictions on youth’s access to stable employment and decent work. To sum, we observe that, to ensure the transfer of dual VET in Mozambique, the program circumvents the local limitations of formal work opportunities by promoting entrepreneurial skills to help beneficiaries create their own employment opportunities. Although such a focus on entrepreneurship may be relevant to enhance adaptability and agency in a precarious environment, it can also be criticized because it tends to overemphasize the role of individual initiatives, over and above well-established contextual predictors of STWT success, and as a corollary, view precarious trajectories as mainly resulting from individual vulnerabilities (Blustein et al., 2024). Further directions will be discussed, calling for research and practices that not only focus on youth’s capacities to adapt to their life circumstances but also on collective resources (e.g. critical consciousness, social support) for multiple actors to reflect critically and develop joint action toward societal change.

The Organic Law 3/2022, of 31 March, on the organisation and integration of Vocational Training poses important challenges and substantial changes to the Vocational Training (VET) model in Spain. The main objectives of this law are the modernisation and adaptation of training programmes to the demands of the labour market. It aims to raise the quality and relevance of training, with a flexible and accessible VET model that guarantees lifelong learning, increasing employability, professional qualification and labour market insertion. It also seeks to strengthen collaboration between educational institutions and companies to stimulate innovation and the continuous updating of training content.

The most substantial modification established is a gradual transition to a VET model that aims to integrate educational and labour systems through a flexible, modular, and dual VET approach to be completed by December 2028. The law stipulates the development of two modalities of Dual VET: general and intensive. General Dual Vocational Training combines education in the training center with workplace learning, where students spend between 25% and 35% of their training time in a company. In contrast, Intensive Dual Vocational Training involves greater workplace immersion, with students dedicating between 35% and 50% of their training time to the company, always under a paid employment contract and promoting the connection to the labor market and enhances youth employability.

To ensure its quality, the Law adopts the EQAVET system that’s provides a quality cycle with four phases: planning, where goals and objectives are set according to the local context; implementation, which ensures these objectives are met through the involvement of key stakeholders; evaluation, based on data collection on achievements and outcomes; and review, where improvements and changes are analysed. Additionally, EQAVET includes indicators such as investment in teacher training, participation and completion rates, employment outcomes, unemployment levels, and programmes to improve access to VET (Council of European Union, 2020).

The implementation of the Dual VET system in a territorially diverse country such as Spain presents multiple challenges due to the disparity of productive sectors, variations in the organisation of the VET system—including institutional autonomy, regulatory frameworks, and resource availability—and disparities in student performance, all of which impact the viability of the model (Homs 2024; Salvà-Mut et al., 2024). Furthermore, territorial factors have been shown to influence dropout rates in VET (Cedefop, 2016). Specifically, territories with stronger academic performance tend to exhibit lower dropout rates, whereas those with weaker educational outcomes experience higher dropout rates in VET. A higher level of employment in the service sector is correlated with increased dropout across all VET levels, a trend linked to a deregulated labour market with abundant low-skilled jobs. Conversely, a greater proportion of industrial employment is associated with lower dropout rates, likely due to its more regulated nature and higher qualification requirements. Similarly, high youth unemployment and the percentage of young people not in employment, education, or training (NEETs) are linked to dropout rates, as returning to education during periods of economic crisis does not necessarily lead to graduation due to systemic inadequacies (Salvà-Mut et al., 2024).

In this context, it is essential to ensure flexibility in territorial planning while developing a model to assess the quality of current training and its implementation process. This will help identify areas for improvement and generate proposals for its efficient application in line with European quality standards. The study will examine the conceptualization of Dual VET in Spain from the perspective of territorial diversity, explore the main challenges in its implementation, and present recommendations for its successful execution according to European quality criteria.

Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) plays a crucial role in sustainable development by improving employability, income, and poverty reduction globally. In Cambodia, however, challenges such as skills mismatches, outdated training methods, and weak alignment with labor market needs persist. This study evaluates the impact of TVET programs on graduate employment and income, focusing on three top-performing TVET institutions in Phnom Penh. It also explores how well the curricula align with industry demands and the factors influencing student enrollment.

A mixed-methods approach was used, combining quantitative surveys with qualitative interviews. Data were collected from 325 TVET graduates and key stakeholders, including employers, TVET institutions, and development partners. Statistical tools, such as Chi-square and t-tests, tested hypotheses regarding the quality of education, employability, income levels, and skill gaps.

The findings show that 90% of graduates believe their TVET programs adequately prepared them for the workforce, though satisfaction varied between public and private institutions. While 82% of graduates were satisfied with the curriculum, concerns about teaching methods and content emerged, with 8% expressing dissatisfaction. Training facilities and internships were largely well-received, but many graduates called for more hands-on experience. Employers cited gaps in practical skills, particularly in problem-solving, customer service, and digital literacy, suggesting that curricula should be better aligned with industry demands.

TVET programs significantly improved employability, with 57% of graduates reporting better job prospects. Graduates demonstrated notable skill improvements in technical and soft skills, including communication, teamwork, and financial management. These findings were statistically significant, highlighting TVET’s role in enhancing career development. However, employers stressed the need for closer collaboration between TVET institutions and industries to ensure curricula meet the changing needs of the labor market.

Income levels also improved post-graduation. Before enrolling in TVET, 50% of graduates earned between USD 200-300, while 45% earned over USD 400 after completing their programs, demonstrating a significant income increase. This shift was confirmed by statistical analysis, leading to the rejection of the hypothesis that TVET programs have no effect on income.

The study examined factors influencing student enrollment in TVET, finding that job opportunities and financial gain were the primary motivators. However, only 28% of students viewed employment as their main motivator, revealing a gap between expectations and reality. Institutional reputation and personal interest were less influential, indicating that many students see TVET as a practical route to employment rather than a passion-driven choice.

Successful TVET institutions shared key best practices, including strong leadership, long-term private sector partnerships, industry-relevant curricula, quality internships, and staff development. These institutions demonstrated that collaboration with employers is crucial for ensuring that training aligns with labor market needs. However, challenges remain, such as the misalignment between curricula and industry needs, particularly in practical training and digital skills. Societal perceptions of TVET as a less prestigious option for education also contribute to low enrollment rates.

The study found significant skill gaps between the training provided by TVET institutions and the skills required by employers. Deficiencies were particularly noticeable in practical skills, communication, problem-solving, and digital literacy. Employers and stakeholders agreed that TVET curricula must be regularly updated to reflect industry standards. While 79% of employers rated TVET graduates' skills as "very good" or "good," 8% rated them lower, indicating room for improvement.

In conclusion, the study offers several recommendations to improve TVET quality in Cambodia. These include strengthening public-private partnerships, updating curricula to reflect current industry standards, enhancing practical training, and adopting modern teaching methods. The study calls for increased funding, better monitoring, and improving TVET’s reputation to attract more students. Aligning TVET with labor market needs is essential for enhancing Cambodia's workforce competitiveness and supporting economic growth.