This paper presents a comparative analysis of energy-efficient retrofit strategies across three historically significant Brutalist buildings in the Western Balkans, each representing a distinct typology and climate condition: a residential complex in Sarajevo (cold climate), a civic cultural center in Kolasin (cold climate), and a multi-use congress center in Belgrade (mixed climate). The study investigates how context-specific design strategies can inform broader frameworks for sustainable retrofitting of culturally significant modernist architecture. Methods combined archival research, fieldwork, and computational performance modeling. Environmental response, envelope performance, and full-building Energy Use Intensity (EUI) were evaluated using Revit, WINDOW, THERM, WUFI, and IES-VE under both existing and proposed retrofit scenarios. Retrofit strategies prioritized improved passive thermal performance through envelope upgrades and the replacement of fossil fuel–based systems with high-efficiency electrified mechanical systems. Across all three case studies, projected whole-building EUI reductions ranged between 53–56%, demonstrating that minimally invasive retrofits can substantially improve performance while preserving architectural character. However, envelope-only interventions proved insufficient to meet energy reduction targets, yielding highly variable savings between 7–33%. Significant performance gains were achieved only when envelope improvements were combined with decoupled and upgraded mechanical systems. Findings highlight the importance of localized decision-making, as climate, construction typology, and original material assemblies directly shaped retrofit priorities and outcomes. By comparing diverse building types and urban contexts, the study demonstrates that modernist architectural stock, which is often perceived as inefficient, can be transformed into high-performing assets. The research proposes a scalable, culturally responsive retrofit framework grounded in climate-specific and typology-driven analysis, with future work extending this methodology to additional building types and regions.

This paper contributes to emerging scholarship in the design disciplines on how the built environment adapts to align with contemporary economic structures and climate impacts, particularly in post-industrial settings experiencing population decline. Using Baltimore as a case study, the paper posits a method for adapting the built environment through widespread retrofit and reuse in support of housing affordability. Combining geospatial analysis and computational design tools, the research addresses both urban and architectural scales, identifying an archipelago of intervention sites amid existing infrastructure. The research consists of two phases. First, we developed a geospatial algorithm to lend specificity to the physical characteristics of the approximately 15,000 abandoned buildings in Baltimore. Second, the newly created dataset featuring volumetric details of abandoned buildings informed a more detailed data collection phase geared toward understanding existing conditions at the architectural scale. Using a combination of aerial photogrammetric and ground-based laser scanning, we created detailed digital models that captured the as-built qualities of abandoned building shells. Whereas the geospatial algorithm enabled estimates of total numbers of unit types, the digital scans revealed minor variations among samples within each unit type. With these data, we designed the kit of parts to integrate with offsite construction processes, aiming for an economy of scale through mass retrofit. With additional testing and research, the process for modifying standardized components or adjusting mass customizable features will be combined with semi-automated systems for design and production.

ABSTRACT: As the global construction industry confronts the challenges of climate change, resource depletion, and waste generation, adaptive reuse offers a practical and culturally sensitive pathway to reduce embodied carbon in the built environment. This paper presents a comparative life‑cycle assessment (LCA) of three development scenarios for Building 12 at Pier 70 in San Francisco: demolition and new construction, adaptive reuse, and low‑carbon adaptive reuse. Using One Click LCA and a cradle‑to‑grave boundary, the analysis quantifies Global Warming Potential (GWP) and biogenic carbon storage for each scenario and links outcomes to material choices, preservation constraints, and design strategies. Results indicate that adaptive reuse (retaining structural components and façade cladding) reduces embodied GWP by 44% relative to new construction, and that combining retention with low‑carbon material substitutions—engineered timber, optimized concrete mixes, recycled steel, and bio‑based insulation—in summary, biogenic materials and circular economy practices, can further lower emissions by 65% while increasing biogenic carbon storage. The low‑carbon adaptive reuse scenario approaches a net‑negative material balance over the assessed service life (50 years), functioning as a carbon sink rather than a carbon emitter. Pier 70 thus serves not only as a redevelopment project but also as a living laboratory that illustrates how heritage structures can be transformed into environmental assets that both avoid emissions and contribute to carbon sequestration. The findings advocate for embedding adaptive reuse within evaluation frameworks, planning incentives, and design standards across the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) sectors. By shifting from demolition to reuse, the industry can honor the past while designing for a low-carbon future. The study concludes with recommendations for practice and policy to mainstream reuse as a central decarbonization strategy in the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) sector.