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This lecture explores the multi-level character of the European Union’s foreign policy by comparing its approaches towards China and the United States, with particular emphasis on the role of subnational actors. Drawing on empirical findings from two large-scale surveys of 745 cities across EU Member States (2020–2021 and 2023–2024), it analyses the goals, forms, and challenges of cooperation between European and Chinese cities, and contrasts them with collaboration patterns involving American cities. The discussion highlights both the benefits of these relationships, such as fostering cultural exchange, promoting innovation, and strengthening economic ties, and the barriers they face, including cultural differences, high costs, and tensions between central governments. The lecture also identifies the key factors that determine success in building effective paradiplomatic relations.

The central argument advanced is that cities and regions should be recognised as essential components of the foreign policy toolbox. However, the lack of integration of subnational initiatives into broader EU strategies limits their impact. This dynamic carries important implications for EU external action but also resonates with paradiplomatic practices in other parts of the world, particularly in North America, where border states and major cities have long shaped international cooperation beyond federal frameworks.

By situating the European case within this wider context, the lecture offers insights into the global significance of multi-level diplomacy and demonstrates how subnational actors can complement national and supranational strategies in managing complex international partnerships.